March 2012
24 posts
Definición de los derechos reproductivos:
Programa de Acción de la Conferencia Internacional sobre Población y Desarrollo, El Cairo, Egipto, 5–13 de septiembre, 1994, Doc. de la ONU A/CONF.171/13/Rev.1 (1995)
February 2012
21 posts
2. Definición de niño en el Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos
23. La definición de niño[4] como sujeto de derecho internacional y el ámbito de aplicación de los estándares internacionales en materia de niñez debe ser examinada a partir de los textos de los trabajos preparatorios que llevaron a la adopción de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño (en adelante, CDN), del texto de la Convención y de las decisiones del Comité de los Derechos del Niño.
a. Revisión de los trabajos preparatorios de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño
24. Tal como se ha precisado anteriormente, la definición del sujeto niño en el Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos la establece la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño de 1989. Por ello, reviste especial importancia tener en consideración la argumentación que se utilizó para definir al sujeto niño sobre la base de la categoría objetiva de la edad. De este modo, resulta interesante observar que el primer texto adoptado en la primera lectura (E/CN.4/1988/WG.1/WP/Rev.1), durante el proceso de redacción de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño consideró que:
Artículo 1
De acuerdo a la Convención niño es todo ser humano hasta los 18 años, salvo que conforme a la ley del Estado, haya alcanzado la mayoría de edad antes[5].
25. Sin embargo, una revisión de los textos posteriores y las propuestas de las delegaciones estatales, hace referencia a una definición de niño que va precisando el rango de edad para incluir solamente a seres humanos “que no hayan alcanzado la edad de 18 años”. Sobre la base de los textos citados se adoptó la disposición del artículo 1 de la Convención en el sentido de comprender a todo “ser humano menor de 18 años”[6].
b. Definición de niño en la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño y en las Decisiones adoptadas por el Comité de Derechos del Niño
26. La Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño es la norma internacional que define quien debe ser considerado como sujeto niño y por tanto, en relación a quienes se aplican los efectos de dicho tratado. En tal sentido, el artículo 1 de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño define que “niño” para los efectos de la interpretación y aplicación de dicho tratado es “todo ser humano menor de dieciocho años”. De este modo, la Convención establece una definición normativa del niño sustentada en la categoría objetiva de la edad.
27. Según la propia Convención, la mayoría de edad puede ser alcanzada antes de los 18 años si la ley nacional de un Estado lo establece, pero en ese caso la Convención será aplicable hasta que la persona cumpla los 18 años. Es preciso observar que la Convención no utiliza como parámetro la mayoría de edad (plena capacidad jurídica) sino simplemente la edad de 18 años. Sobre este tema, resulta pertinente señalar que el Comité de Derechos Humanos ha establecido que “las edades de protección” no deben ser “irracionalmente cortas” y que en ningún caso un Estado puede dejar de cumplir sus obligaciones de protección con los niños, las niñas y los adolescentes, aunque en el marco de su legislación doméstica, hayan alcanzado la mayoría de edad antes de los 18 años[7].
28. Por el contrario, la Convención no establece una excepcionalidad en relación a la extensión de la edad para que una persona pueda ser considerada niño y por tanto, le resulten aplicables las disposiciones de este tratado, luego de cumplir los 18 años. Al respecto, el Comité sobre los Derechos del Niño ha señalado que el artículo 1 establece “una edad de referencia máxima generalde 18 años. Los Estados Partes deberán utilizar esta edad límite como una norma y una referencia para el establecimiento de cualquier otra edad particular para propósitos o actividades específicas.
29. Además, en esta disposición, se destaca la necesidad de que los Estados Partes garanticen una protección especial a cada niño menor de esa edad límite…”[8].
30. En la línea de lo dispuesto en la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño, se ubican tanto el Convenio 182 de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo (OIT) sobre las peores formas de trabajo infantil, que establece en su artículo 2 que el término niño designa “(…) a toda persona menor de 18 años” y el Protocolo para Prevenir, Reprimir y Sancionar la Trata de Personas, especialmente Mujeres y Niños que completa la Convención de las Naciones Unidas contra la Delincuencia Transnacional[9].
c. Definición de niño en el Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos
31. En el ámbito interamericano, no se tiene una definición normativa del sujeto niño. Por un lado, la Declaración Americana de Derechos y Deberes del Hombre sólo establece un ámbito de protección para el niño pero no lo define[10]. La Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos si bien establece un ámbito de protección a los derechos humanos del niño, tampoco define al sujeto de derecho[11].
32. En virtud de lo anterior, la Corte[12] y la Comisión[13] Interamericanas de Derechos Humanos han precisado que la definición de niño o niña se sustenta en lo dispuesto en el artículo 1 de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño[14]. La Corte Interamericana precisó en su Opinión Consultiva 17 que el término niño “abarca, evidentemente, los niños, niñas y adolescentes”[15]. La sección V de la Opinión Consultiva 17 sobre la Condición Jurídica y los Derechos Humanos del Niño denominada “Definición de niño” precisa quien debe ser considerado como sujeto niño:
En definitiva, tomando en cuenta la normativa internacional y el criterio sustentado por la Corte en otros casos, se entiende por “niño” a toda persona que no ha cumplido 18 años de edad[16].
33. Así por ejemplo, en el primer caso que la Corte resolvió sobre niñez estableció que la aplicación del artículo 19 se limitaba a las víctimas menores de 18 años:
El artículo 19 de la Convención Americana no define qué se entiende como “niño”. Por su parte, la Convención sobre Derechos del Niño considera como tal (artículo 1) a todo ser humano que no haya cumplido los 18 años, “salvo que, en virtud de la ley que le sea aplicable, haya alcanzado antes la mayoría de edad”. De conformidad con la legislación guatemalteca vigente para la época en que ocurrieron los hechos del presente caso, igualmente eran menores, quienes no habían cumplido los 18 años de edad. Según esos criterios sólo tres de las víctimas, Julio Roberto Caal Sandoval, Jovito Josué Juárez Cifuentes y Anstraum Villagrán Morales, tenían la condición de niños. Sin embargo, la Corte emplea, en esta sentencia, la expresión coloquial “niños de la calle”, para referirse a las cinco víctimas en el presente caso, que vivían en las calles, en situación de riesgo[17].
34. En el caso Bulacio contra Argentina, la Corte reiteró:
Walter David Bulacio tenía 17 años cuando fue detenido por la Policía Federal Argentina. La Corte estableció en su Opinión Consultiva OC-17 que “[e]n definitiva, tomando en cuenta la normativa internacional y el criterio sustentado por la Corte en otros casos, se entiende por ‘niño’ a toda persona que no ha cumplido 18 años de edad[18].
35. En el caso de las niñas Dilcia Yean y Violeta Bosico contra República Dominicana, la Corte precisó que “al momento en que el Estado reconoció la competencia contenciosa de la Corte Dilcia Yean y Violeta Bosico, eran niñas[19], quienes en esta condición tenían derechos especiales a los que corresponden deberes específicos de la familia, la sociedad y el Estado, y exigen una protección especial que es debida por este último y que debe ser entendida como un derecho adicional y complementario[20]”.
36. Cabe observar que en los casos sobre niñez posteriores, la Corte no incluye consideraciones que precisen con más detalle la definición de niño. No obstante, resulta interesante observar que en su sentencia relativa al caso del Instituto de Reeducación del Menor contra Paraguay del 2004, la Corte utiliza el criterio de mayoría de edad para establecer el rango de protección y considera que dado que la legislación interna vigente en el momento en que ocurrieron los hechos establecía la mayoría de edad en 20 años, consideró necesario referirse a Ricardo Daniel Martínez, fallecido a los 18 años, como niño. Es preciso subrayar que al hacer esta consideración la Corte no aplicó el criterio objetivo de la edad establecido en la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño y recogido en sus resoluciones previas; sino que utilizó el criterio de la mayoría de edad, que no corresponde al sentido que recoge el artículo 1 de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño tal como se precisó anteriormente[21].
d. Definición de niño en el Sistema Europeo de Derechos Humanos
37. El sistema europeo de protección de derechos humanos aplica el mismo criterio objetivo para definir en qué momento termina la niñez. Así por ejemplo, el artículo 1 de la Convención Europea sobre el Ejercicio de los Derechos del Niño establece que sus disposiciones se aplican a los niños, es decir a todo ser humano que no haya alcanzado los 18 años[22]. En el mismo sentido, la Convención Europea sobre la Protección de los Niños contra la Explotación Sexual y el Abuso Sexual adoptada en Lanzarote, España el 25 de octubre de 2007 define como niño “cualquier persona menor de 18 años”[23].
e. Definición de niño en el Sistema Africano de Derechos Humanos
38. La Carta Africana sobre Derechos y Bienestar de los Niños, adoptada en julio de 1990, define como niño a todo ser humano menor de dieciocho años[24].
FUENTE: http://www.hrea.org/index.php?base_id=81
Introduction
Rights at Stake
International and Regional Instruments of Protection and Promotion
National Protection and Service Agencies
Advocacy, Educational and Training Materials
Other Resources
Children’s rights are comprehensively protected by a wide-ranging set of international and regional instruments spanning human rights, humanitarian and refugee law. Children benefit from the rights contained in general treaties. In addition, a number of specialist instruments have been created to accord extra protection to children given their particular vulnerabilities and the importance to society as a whole in ensuring the healthy development and active participation of its young members.
The over-arching framework for children’s rights is the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). This was the first treaty specifically concerned with the rights of children and marked an important shift in thinking towards a “rights-based approach” which held governments legally accountable for failing to meet the needs of children. The Convention created a new vision of children as bearers of rights and responsibilities appropriate to their age rather than viewing them as the property of their parents or the helpless recipients of charity.
Children’s rights cover four main aspects of a child’s life: the right to survive; the right to develop; the right to be protected from harm, and the right to participate.
Who is a child?
The definition of a child under the CRC covers all human beings under the age of 18 unless the relevant national law recognises an earlier age of majority. However, the Convention emphasises that the substitution of an earlier age of majority must be in conformity with the spirit of the Convention and its guiding principles and thus should not be used to undermine the rights of a child.
There are no definitions of other terms used to describe young people such as “adolescents”, “teenagers” or “youth” in international law. Some organizations have adopted working definitions to facilitate their programmatic work. The World Health Organisation, for example, has adopted the following working definitions: “adolescent” refers to any individual aged between 10-19 years; “young person” refers to any individual between 10-24 years; and “youth” to persons between the ages of 15-24 years.
In everyday language, the word “children” usually implies small children, especially those under ten years of age. It is important to note however that the CRC refers to all children by this term including those that one might normally refer to by other terms e.g. adolescents. The extensive provisions of the CRC apply to all persons under 18 but it may be that certain articles are of more relevance to small children e.g. basic survival while others are more significant for older children e.g. protection from sexual exploitation and military recruitment.
Rights at Stake
Children’s rights cover every aspect of the lives of children and adolescents and can be broken down into the following main categories:
Survival rights: the right to life and to have the most basic needs met (e.g., adequate standard of living, shelter, nutrition, medical treatment). Development rights: the rights enabling children to reach their fullest potential (e.g. education, play and leisure, cultural activities, access to information and freedom of thought, conscience and religion). Participation rights: rights that allow children and adolescents to take an active role in their communities (e.g., the freedom to express opinions; to have a say in matters affecting their own lives; to join associations). Protection rights: rights that are essential for safeguarding children and adolescents from all forms of abuse, neglect and exploitation (e.g., special care for refugee children; protection against involvement in armed conflict, child labour, sexual exploitation, torture and drug abuse).
Specific issues:
Child labour - children work for a variety of reasons in differing cultural, social and economic circumstances. Whether work is defined as exploitative will depend on a range of factors including the work itself, the work environment, the presence of particular hazards, the perceived benefits of work and the nature of the employment relationship. Gender also plays a role as girls and boys may be subjected to different forms of exploitative labour. Another important consideration is how work interferes with the right of a child to education. Some forms of child labour have clearly been identified as harmful and are often referred to as the “worst” forms of child labour e.g. sexual exploitation, military recruitment.
Sexual exploitation - children and adolescents may be particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation given their dependency on others and their limited ability to protect themselves. Sexual abuse and exploitation can take a variety of forms including rape, commercial sexual exploitation and domestic abuse. Sexual exploitation has far-reaching effects for the physical and mental health of a child. It is estimated that 1 million children (mainly girls but also a significant number of boys) enter the multi-billion dollar sex trade each year.
Military recruitment - An estimated 300,000 children and adolescents are engaged in armed conflict and are often forced into committing extremely brutal acts of violence. Children have a right to specific protection in situations of armed conflict.
Juvenile justice - Children and adolescents held in custody for crimes may suffer torture, inhumane and degrading treatment, they may be unlawfully detained and be denied their right to a fair trial. They may be given sentences which damage their well-being and prevent their successful re-integration into society. The administration of juvenile justice is carried out in accordance with the best interests of the child.
Rights granted to children under the Convention on the Rights of the Child must be implemented with regard to three key principles:
Best interests - In all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration.
Non-discrimination - Each child’s rights are ensured without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child’s or his or her parent’s or legal guardian’s race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status.
Participation - Children who arecapable of forming his or her own views have the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child.
Key Assistance Agencies
Child rights are so broad and all encompassing that efforts to ensure their implementation are undertaken by a cross-section of organisations working in collaboration including governments, inter-governmental organisations, non-governmental organisations and private companies.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
Created by the United Nations General Assembly in 1946 to help children after World War II in Europe, UNICEF was first known as the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. In 1953, UNICEF became a permanent part of the United Nations system, its task being to help children living in poverty in developing countries. Its name was shortened to the United Nations Children’s Fund, but it retained the acronym “UNICEF,” by which it is known to this day.
UNICEF helps children to get the care and stimulation they need in the early years of life and encourages families to educate girls as well as boys. It strives to reduce childhood death and illness and to protect children in the midst of war and natural disaster. UNICEF supports adolescents, wherever they are, in making informed decisions about their own lives, and strives to build a world in which all children live in dignity and security.
Working with national governments, NGOs (non-governmental organizations), other United Nations agencies and private-sector partners, UNICEF protects children and their rights by providing services and supplies and by helping shape policy agendas and budgets in the best interests of children.
International and Regional Instruments for Protection and Promotion
International legal instruments take the form of a treaty (also called agreement, convention, or protocol) that binds the contracting states to the negotiated terms. When negotiations are completed, the text of a treaty is established as authentic and definitive and is “signed” by the representatives of states. A state can agree to be bound to a treaty in various ways. The most common are ratification or accession. A new treaty is ratified by those states that have negotiated the instrument. A state that has not participated in the negotiations may, at a later stage, accede to the treaty. The treaty enters into force, or becomes valid, when a pre-determined number of states have ratified or acceded to the treaty.
When a state ratifies or accedes to a treaty, that state may make reservations to one or more articles of the treaty, unless reservations are prohibited by the treaty. Reservations may normally be withdrawn at any time. In some countries, international treaties take precedence over national law; in others a specific law may be required to give a ratified international treaty the force of a national law. Practically all states that have ratified or acceded to an international treaty must issue decrees, change existing laws, or introduce new legislation in order for the treaty to be fully effective on the national territory.
The binding treaties can be used to force governments to respect the treaty provisions that are relevant for the rights of children and youth. The non-binding instruments, such as declarations and resolutions, can be used in relevant situations to embarrass governments by negative public exposure; governments who care about their international image may consequently adapt their policies.
The following international instruments protect and promote the rights of children and youth:
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
The very first commitment to children’s rights was the Declaration on the Rights of Child, known as the “Declaration of Geneva”, which adopted by the League of Nations in 1924. The Declaration of Geneva was further revised and extended in 1948 and in 1959 led to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Child, which was adopted unanimously by the General Assembly of the United Nations (20 November 1959). This declaration was expanded and developed ultimately resulting in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child which was unanimously adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 20 November 1989.
The CRC contains 54 articles and is a comprehensive instrument setting out rights that define universal principles and norms for the status of children. It is the only international human rights treaty which covers the whole spectrum of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. It includes economic and social rights with the recognition that these are progressively realisable and depend on the resources available to the state party.
The CRC offers the highest standards of protection and assistance for minors compared to any other international instrument; For example, protection standards go beyond the usual guarantees of health, education and welfare, to guarantees which relate to the child’s individual personality, rights to freedom of expression, religion, association, assembly, and the right to privacy.
The Convention on the Rights of Child It is the most widely ratified of all human rights treaties. As of March 2003, it had been ratified by all countries in the world except the two: the United States which has signed but not ratified; and Somalia which does not have a recognised government able to ratify.
Two optional protocols have been added in recent times and expand the protection accorded to children on two issues.
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (2000)
This optional protocol is designed to criminalize activities that involve the sale and illegal adoption of children as well as child prostitution and child pornography. The protocol entered into force on 18 January 2002.
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict (2000)
This optional protocol states that 18 is the age at which direct participation in armed conflict is permitted. It also bans compulsory recruitment under the age of 18. However, it falls short of banning voluntary recruitment under 18 but requires States to make a declaration upon ratification stating the age at which national law permits voluntary recruitment and demonstrating the steps taken to ensure that such recruitment is not compulsory. The protocol entered into force on 12 February 2002.
UN Committee on the Rights of the Child
The CRC is monitored through a system of reporting by States parties to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. This is a body of 18 independent experts who are elected to 4 year terms. It meets three times a year in Geneva and has a small permanent secretariat at the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights.
The role of the committee is to examine progress made by states in fulfilling their obligations. It only has the power to consider information concerning countries which have ratified the convention. Governments are required to submit periodic reports. The Committee examines these reports at an oral hearing and also seeks information from external sources such as non-governmental and inter-governmental organisations. In fact it is the only international treaty giving NGOs an official monitoring role. The Committee does not examine individual complaints.
Special Rapporteur on the Sale of Children, child prostitution and child pornography
The UN Commission on Human Rights appointed in 1990 a Special Rapporteur on the Sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography who is responsible for preparing annual reports for the Commission, carrying out field visits and preparing country-specific reports.
ILO Convention (138) concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment (1973)This convention agreed in 1973 and upheld by the Committee on the Rights of the Child as an appropriate standard, provides principles which apply to all sectors of economic activity. Ratifying States are to fix a minimum age for admission to employment or work, undertake to pursue a national policy designed to ensure the effective abolition of child labour, and raise progressively the minimum age for admission to employment or work to a level suitable with the fullest physical and mental development of young persons.
Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the Protection and Welfare of Children, with special reference to Foster Placement and Adoption Nationally and Internationally (1986)
This declaration lays down important guidelines for the fostering and adoption, including inter-country adoptions, of children who lack appropriate parental care.
ILO Convention (182) concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (1999)
Various international conventions have been agreed under the auspices of the International Labour Organisation to protect labour rights. ILO Convention 182 bans the worst forms of child labour including slavery, sale and debt bondage, forced labour, recruitment for armed forces, prostitution, drug trafficking or other illicit activities, or other work which harms the health, safety or morals of children.
Other UN human rights treaties and treaty bodies also apply to children. Some treaties and treaty bodies such as the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination make specific reference to children. Other provisions apply equally to the protection of children’s rights as they do those of adults.
International humanitarian law and international refugee law
The 1949 Geneva Conventions and their optional protocols which lay down the standards of international humanitarian law contain both specific and general provisions which protect the rights of children in conflict situations. The 1951 Refugee Conventionlikewise protects child asylum seekers and refugees.
Under “norms of customary international law”, all children can be protected, amongst other things, against: slavery and the slave trade; torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; systematic racial discrimination; prolonged arbitrary detention.
AFRICAN UNION (FORMERLY ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY, OAU) African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of Child (1990)
The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child is an important regional instrument to protect an promote the rights of children. An African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child has recently beend established. This Committee will be empowered to receive state reports as well as communications from individuals, groups or non-governmental organizations recognised by the African Union, a member state or from the United Nations.
OTHER REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Neither the Organization of American States nor the European human rights systemhave specific instruments relating to children but a number of regional human rights instruments are as applicable to children as they are to adults, such as European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and theEuropean Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
National Protection and Service Agencies
Countries that have ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) have agreed to review their laws relating to children and adolescents and to assess their social services, legal, health and educational systems as well as funding commitments to ensure that the best efforts are being made to meet their obligations under the convention. In some instances this has involved changing the law or creating new laws to conform with the requirements of the CRC. The Convention also specifically provides that where a country already has a higher standard than that set forth in the CRC, the former will prevail: “States Parties shall undertake all appropriate legislative, administrative, and other measures for the implementation of the rights recognised in the present Convention. With regard to economic, social and cultural rights, States Parties shall undertake such measures to the maximum extent of their available resources, and, where needed, within the framework of international co-operation”. (article 4 CRC) Governments have taken the following types of measures to implement the convention at national level:
- Developed comprehensive national agenda
- Developed permanent bodies or mechanisms for promote coordination of all sectors of government, monitoring and evaluation
- Taken steps to ensure that all legislation is fully compatible with the CRC by incorporating it into domestic law or ensuring that its principles take precedence in cases of conflict with national legislation.
- Carried out child impact assessments to ensure children are taking into account in planning and policy decisions
- Analysed government spending to determine the portion of public funds spent on children and to ensure that these resources are being used effectively.
- Carried out data collection
- Raised awareness and disseminated information about the CRC
- Involved civil society including children in the process of implementing and raising awareness of child rights.
- Set up independent statutory offices - ombudspersons, commissions or other institutions - to promote and protect children’s rights. Progress on implementation by particular countries can be found in the country reports submitted to the Committee on the Rights of the Child. Two world summits on children, one in 1989 shortly after the Convention was agreed and the latest one in May 2002, have been convened to help governments work towards a practical plan of action to translate the Convention into a practical reality.
[Back to Top]
Advocacy, Educational and Training Materials
For advocates
Children’s Rights in the UN System of Human Rights Protection (Helsinki Foundation for Human Rights-Poland)
The subject of this lesson plan is the catalogue of rights found in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the functions of the Committee on the Rights of the Child, and the obligation of the State Parties to submit periodic reports to the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the state of children’s rights in the said country.
The New ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1999 (Anti-Slavery International)
The publication outlines Convention 182 which defines the situations classified as the worst forms of child labour, as well as what governments must do to prohibit and eliminate them. Case studies of Togo and Guatemala are also illustrated in order to show how civil society groups can maximize action in eliminating child labour.
For employers
Employers’ Handbook on Child Labour: A Guide for Taking Action (International Organization of Employers)
This handbook is a reference manual for employers and their organisations to implement policies and programs in accordance with the International Labour Organization.
For educators
Children’s Rights Here and Now (Amnesty International-USA)
This lesson plan can be used to examine the situation regarding children’s rights, using the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Fields of Hope: Educational Activities on Child Labor. Teacher’s Guide (American Center for International Labor Solidarity, AFL-CIO)
This guide includes eight lessons intended for ages 12-15 (grade levels 6-8). The lessons are intended to enhance students’ knowledge and understanding of child labor issues internationally, to develop skills in organising and using the information contained in the Fields of Hope web site and other sites devoted to child labor, and to foster attitudes of social responsibility.
Lesson plan on refugee children (UNHCR)
Lesson and Unit plan for teachers on refugees developed by UNHCR for ages 9-11 for civics.
Raising Children With Roots, Rights & Responsibilities: Celebrating the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (by Lori DuPont, Joanne Foley, Annette Gagliardi)
This guide for a 12-week human rights curriculum builds on the power of the parent-child relationship. Themes of the sessions are: sharing a vision; whole child; equality; name and nationality; adequate standard of living; special protections; consideration and care; free education; play and culture; protection; expression and association; ratification and review.
Teaching for Human Rights: Pre-school and Grades 1-4 (Ralph Pettman, with Joan Braham, Lynette Johnston, Elke Muzik, Kath Lock, Stephanie O’Laughlin Peters, Diana Smythe)
This teacher manual provides specific suggestions, proven in practice, of what to do and why, for pre-school and lower primary teachers who want to foster children’s feelings of self-esteem and social tolerance.
Teaching for Human Rights: Grades 5-10 (Ralph Pettman, with Colin Henry)
This teacher manual provides specific suggestions, proven in practice, of what to do and why, upper primary and secondary teachers who want to foster children’s feelings of self-esteem and social tolerance.
Ten messages about children with disabilities (UNICEF)
Practical tips for to help children with disabilities learn in a safe and equitable environment.
Our Book of Child Rights (Human Rights Education Programme-Pakistan)
This colourful picture book is based on the Convention on the Rights of the Child and is intended to be used by students and teachers as an introduction to children’s rights and responsibilities.
[Back to Top]
Other Resources
Courses and training opportunities about children’s rights
International Day of the African Child (16 June)
Universal Children’s Day (20 November)
World Day Against Child Labour (12 June)
Organisations that promote and protect the rights of children & youth
Committee on the Rights of the Child Concluding Observations for Mexico’s Initial OPSC ReportOffice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human RightsCRC Session 56, 17 January - 4 February 2011Committee on the Rights of the Child Concluding Observations for Mexico’s Initial OPAC ReportUN OHCHR - Committee on the Rights of the ChildCRC Session 56, 17 January - 4 February 2011Alternative Report to the Initial Report Presented by the United Mexican States to the CRC in accordance with the OPSCECPAT MexicoCRC Session 56, 17 January - 4 February 2011Informe Alternativo Sobre el Protocolo Facultativo de la CDN Sobre los Derechos del Nino Relativo a la Participación de Niños en Conflictos ArmadosRed por los Derechos de la Infancia en MéxicoCRC Session 56, 17 January - 4 February 2011Recommendations made under the OPSC - MexicoChild Helpline InternationalCRC Session 56, 17 January - 4 February 2011Informe Alternativo al Informe Inicial Presentado por los Estados Unidos Mexicanos al Comite de Derechos del Nino con Arreglo al OPSCECPAT MexicoCRC Session 56, 17 January - 4 February 2011
The issue of children and sexuality can be controversial, and prompts consideration of a number of children’s rights. This factsheet does not address those concerning protection, considered elsewhere on CRIN (see, for example, our pages on sexual exploitation and violence). Rather, it outlines the main issues concerning sex education, sexual orientation and gender identity.
Issues
Sex education
The breadth of rights relevant to sex education include, but are not limited to, the right to health, the right to education, the right to participation and the right to information.
Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child requires that states develop preventive health care, guidance for parents and family planning education and services.
Article 28 recognises the right of the child to education, while article 29 stipulates that the education of the child shall be directed to: The development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential and The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous origin
The Committee on the Rights of the Child’s General Comment No.3 on HIV and AIDS states that: The Committee wishes to emphasise that effective HIV/AIDS prevention requires States to refrain from censoring, withholding or intentionally misrepresenting health-related information, including sexual education and information, and that, consistent with their obligations to ensure the right to life, survival and development of the child (art. 6), States parties must ensure that children have the ability to acquire the knowledge and skills to protect themselves and others as they begin to express their sexuality.
Any association between children and sex provokes concern among many, not least because of children’s vulnerability to sexual abuse, but also because of concerns over their heath, psycho-social development and pregnancy. Objections from anti-abortion campaigners can also influence discussion.
A concern for the protection of children has most often dictated sex education policy. Governments, teachers and healthcare professionals tread very carefully, concerned at not drawing the wrath of parents or, in some cases, media. As a result, education policy can be absent or confusing.
Unfortunately, misunderstandings over sex education, particularly the misplaced view that it teaches children promiscuity or encourages them to be sexually active at a young age, can mean children do not get the preparation they require in order to have safe and healthy sex lives, whether as older children or as adults.
Furthermore, there is considerable evidence to suggest that just giving children a very scientific account of sex can fail to prepare them for the challenges involved in negotiating a sexual relationship. This can make them more susceptible to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
At the UN Special Session on Children in 2002, there was a concerted campaign, led most notably by the US, to limit mentions of sex in the final outcome document. The US delegation viewed abstinence as the primary strategy to prevent unintended pregnancies and HIV and AIDS. A delegate from Saudi Arabia reportedly praised the US for focusing on sexual abstinence: “The best, if not the only, kind of prevention is chastity. Chastity and abstinence is the number one solution.” 1
The Bush administration also wanted to ensure that the wording of the final document “does not support or advance the idea of abortion.” As part of this plan, it campaigned to have the phrase “reproductive health services” removed
In spite of these efforts, there is evidence that young people who receive comprehensive sexuality education become sexually active later, and are more likely to use contraceptives than those who go through abstinence-only sex education programmes. 2.
Nonetheless, as a result of this lobbying, many provisions on sex education and sexual and reproductive rights, which had been compiled by UN agencies, NGOs, State delegations and, importantly, children, were omitted.
Sexual orientation and gender identity
Article 2 of the Convention addresses discrimination. Paragraph 2 states: States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that the child is protected against all forms of discrimination or punishment on the basis of the status, activities, expressed opinions, or beliefs of the child’s parents, legal guardians, or family members
As such, the article may be invoked in respect of both the discrimination faced by children, and that faced by gay/lesbian/bisexual parents.
The legal obligation to act “in the best interests of the child” needs to include respecting the child’s right to be free from discrimination, including that based on sexual orientation. The Committee on the Rights of the Child, in its Concluding Observations, has made reference to States’ obligation to protect children from discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. For example, in 2002 the Committee recommended that the UK government:
“Provide adequate information and support to homosexual and transsexual young people, and encourages the State party, further to the statement of intent made by its delegation to repeal section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988, where it applies”. Section 28 was a piece of legislation that stated that local authorities in England and Wales may not “intentionally promote homosexuality” or “promote the teaching of… the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretend family relationship”.
The Committee on the Rights of the Child’s General Comment No.3 on HIV and AIDS also expressed concern at discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
In 2006, in response to well-documented patterns of abuse, a group of international human rights experts, including a member of the Committee on the Rights of the Child, met in Yogyakarta, Indonesia to outline a set of international principles relating to sexual orientation and gender identity.
The result was the Yogyakarta Principles: a universal guide to human rights which affirm binding international legal standards with which all States must comply. They promise a different future where all people born free and equal in dignity and rights can fulfil that precious birthright. Read the references to children in the Principles:http://www.crin.org/resources/infoDetail.asp?ID=17332&flag=report
Other treaties which prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation include the Treaty of Amsterdam, of the European Union, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Although there is no express provision in this latter treaty, in the case Toonen vs. Australia, the Human Rights Committee (which monitors implementation of the Covenant) held that the references to “sex” in Articles 2, paragraph 1, (non-discrimination) and 26 (equality before the law) of the ICCPR should be taken to include sexual orientation.
In June 2008, the Organisation of American States (OAS) recognised for the first time that homosexuals in the Americas are victims of discrimination and violence.
The OAS passed a resolution on human rights, sexual orientation and gender identity, which was presented by a delegation of activists from Brazil, and committed to placing the issue on its agenda.
During the session, a 14 year old Colombian boy read a statement to ambassadors in which he spoke of the particular violence and discrimination against homosexual children and young people.
In September 2007, a landmark judgement in Argentina recognised a minor’s right to change her sexual identity. For the first time in the region, a court ruled in favour of a minor’s wish to have a sex change operation and to amend her identity card and birth certificate accordingly.
The judge based his decision on a section of the country’s civil code on organ transplants, which recognises the psychological capacity of minors to decide on matters affecting their body, and article 12 (right to participation) of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
And in October 2008, the Constitutional Court of Colombia protected the right of a five-year-old hermaphrodite to decide his/her sex. The judgment was made against the family’s wish to submit the child to an operation which would remove the child’s female genitalia.
http://crin.org/resources/infoDetail.asp?ID=18678&flag=news
Sources:
1.Jennifer Kitts and Katherine McDonald, “United Nations Special Session on Children: children’s rights under attack”, CMAJ, April 30, 2002; 166 (9), http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/166/9/1155
2. Kirby D. Emerging Answers: Research Findings on Programs to Reduce Teen Pregnancy. Washington DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2001
Organisation Contact Details:
Child Rights International Network
East Studio
2 Pontypool Place
London
SE1 8QF
Tel: +44 (0)207 401 2257
Email: info@crin.org
Website: www.crin.org
30/01/2010 - HIV AND AIDS: Healthy, Happy and Hot - A young person’s guide to their rights, sexuality and living with HIV
01/07/2008 - YEMEN: New law guarantees the rights of Children with HIV/Aids
Summary:
Children and young people need skills and information to protect their sexual and reproductive health and reduce their vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. This toolkit looks at the role of peer education programmes, how to improve their quality, how to make them more sustainable and how they can link to other child-friendly services.
CIDH presenta caso sobre Costa Rica ante la Corte IDH
16 de agosto de 2011
El caso se relaciona con la violación de los derechos a la vida privada y familiar, del derecho a fundar una familia y del derecho a la igualdad y no discriminación, consagrados en la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, como consecuencia de la prohibición general de practicar la técnica de reproducción asistida de la Fecundación in Vitro. Esta prohibición ha estado vigente en Costa Rica desde el año 2000, tras una decisión emitida por la Sala Constitucional de la Corte Suprema de Justicia.Washington, D.C. - La Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (CIDH) presentó ante la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (Corte IDH) el Caso No. 12.361, Gretel Artavia Murillo y Otros (Fecundación In Vitro), Costa Rica.
En el Informe de Fondo sobre el caso, la Comisión consideró que esta prohibición absoluta constituyó una injerencia arbitraria en los derechos a la vida privada y familiar y a formar una familia. Asimismo, la Comisión consideró que la prohibición constituyó una violación del derecho a la igualdad de las víctimas, en tanto el Estado les impidió el acceso a un tratamiento que les hubiera permitido superar su situación de desventaja respecto de la posibilidad de tener hijas o hijos biológicos. Este impedimento tuvo, además, un impacto desproporcionado en las mujeres.
El caso se envió a la Corte IDH el 29 de julio de 2011 porque la Comisión consideró que el Estado no cumplió con las recomendaciones contenidas en el Informe de Fondo.
La CIDH es un órgano principal y autónomo de la Organización de los Estados Americanos (OEA), cuyo mandato surge de la Carta de la OEA y de la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos. La Comisión Interamericana tiene el mandato de promover la observancia de los derechos humanos en la región y actúa como órgano consultivo de la OEA en la materia. La CIDH está integrada por siete miembros independientes que son elegidos por la Asamblea General de la OEA a título personal, y no representan sus países de origen o residencia.
Medidas Provisionales otorgadas en el caso L.M. vs. Paraguay. Determinado por el Presidente de la Corte Interamericana en su Resolución de 23 de enero de 2012.
Las medidas de protección fueron concedidas mediante Resolución de la Corte de 1 de julio de 2011. En su solicitud la CIDH requirió al Tribunal “la agilización de procesos internos y las decisiones sobre el mejor interés del niño L.M. –de un año y medio de edad- incluyendo, en el plazo más inmediato posible, las determinaciones que correspondan sobre un relacionamiento con su familia biológica.” (Resolución 2011/07, párr. 1)
Via Corte IDH Blog
Registro No. 168337
Novena Época
Instancia: Primera Sala
Fuente: Semanario Judicial de la Federación y su Gaceta
XXVIII, Diciembre de 2008
Página: 236
Tesis: 1a. CXI/2008
Tesis Aislada
Materia(s): Civil
DERECHOS DERIVADOS DE LA PATRIA POTESTAD (CÓDIGO CIVIL DEL ESTADO DE MÉXICO).
Esta Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación reiteradamente ha destacado la importancia de tomar en cuenta el interés superior del niño que implica entre otras cosas tomar en cuenta aspectos relativos a garantizar y proteger su desarrollo y el ejercicio pleno de sus derechos, como criterios rectores para la elaboración de normas y aplicación en todos los órdenes relativos a la vida del niño, de conformidad con lo establecido en el texto constitucional y la Convención sobre Derechos del Niño. De ahí que de un análisis correlativo entre los artículos 4.96, 4.98 y 4.205 del Código Civil del Estado de México, se entiende que el establecimiento y definición de los derechos derivados de la patria potestad no sólo se refiere al derecho del niño a convivir con ambos padres o su representación legal, sino también se refiere a la protección integral del menor en sus aspectos físico, moral y social, su guarda y su custodia, la administración de los bienes y el derecho de corrección.
Amparo directo en revisión 1475/2008. 15 de octubre de 2008. Unanimidad de cuatro votos. Ausente: José de Jesús Gudiño Pelayo. Ponente: José Ramón Cossío Díaz. Secretaria: Dolores Rueda Aguilar.
Registro No. 160666
Décima Época
Instancia: Primera Sala
Fuente: Semanario Judicial de la Federación y su Gaceta
Libro II, Noviembre de 2011
Página: 205
Tesis: 1a. CCV/2011 (9a.)
Tesis Aislada
Materia(s): Constitucional
PÉRDIDA DE PATRIA POTESTAD. LA PORCIÓN NORMATIVA DE LA FRACCIÓN II DEL ARTÍCULO 4.224 DEL CÓDIGO CIVIL DEL ESTADO DE MÉXICO QUE ESTABLECE UN REQUISITO ADICIONAL AL ABANDONO DE LAS OBLIGACIONES ALIMENTARIAS POR MÁS DE DOS MESES, ES INCONSTITUCIONAL.
Esta Suprema Corte estima que es inconstitucional la porción normativa de la fracción II del artículo 4.224 del Código Civil del Estado de México que condiciona la pérdida de la patria potestad al hecho de que el incumplimiento de las obligaciones alimentarias por más de dos meses “comprometa la salud, la seguridad o la moralidad de los menores aun cuando esos hechos no constituyan delito”. Ese requisito adicional al simple incumplimiento de las obligaciones alimentarias por el tiempo estipulado por el legislador es contrario al interés superior del menor y a los deberes constitucionales a cargo de los ascendientes, tutores y custodios establecidos en el artículo 4o. constitucional. El interés superior del menor impone una tutela reforzada de los derechos de la niñez, entre los que se encuentra precisamente el derecho a recibir alimentos y la correlativa obligación de satisfacerlo, a cargo de quienes ejercen la patria potestad. En esta línea, si el legislador establece un requisito adicional al abandono de los deberes alimentarios para perder la patria potestad, contraviene la garantía de tutela reforzada porque para los menores resulta una medida más protectora de sus intereses una causal de pérdida de patria potestad donde simplemente se exija el incumplimiento de los deberes alimentarios por determinado tiempo, sin necesidad de que se acrediten otras circunstancias. En efecto, introducir dicho requisito adicional hace prácticamente imposible que se actualice el supuesto de pérdida de patria potestad porque cuando un ascendiente, tutor o custodio incumple con sus deberes alimentarios es muy frecuente que alguien más se haga cargo de satisfacer las necesidades del menor. Así, podrían presentarse casos donde resulte incuestionable que uno de los padres ha incumplido de forma contumaz con sus deberes de protección derivados del artículo 4o. constitucional y, no obstante, no se le podría sancionar con la pérdida de la patria potestad.
Amparo directo en revisión 12/2010. 2 de marzo de 2011. Mayoría de tres votos. Disidentes: José Ramón Cossío Díaz y Guillermo I. Ortiz Mayagoitia. Ponente: Arturo Zaldívar Lelo de Larrea. Secretario: Arturo Bárcena Zubieta.
